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error management
Errors are unintentional deviations from goals, rules, and standards.〔Frese, M. and N. Keith, Action errors, error management and learning in organizations. Annual Review of Psychology, 2015 in press.〕 Error management (EM) starts after an error has occurred; it attempts to block negative error consequences, to reduce their negative impact, or to deal quickly with error consequences once they occur,.〔〔Frese, M., Error management or error prevention: Two strategies to deal with errors in software design, in Human aspects in computing: Design and use of interactive systems and work with terminals, H.-J. Bullinger, Editor. 1991, Elsevier Science Publ.: Amsterdam. p. 776-782.〕 It further involves “controlling damage quickly (including reducing the chances of error cascades), and reducing the occurrence of particular errors in the future (secondary error prevention), as well as optimizing the positive consequences of errors, such as long-term learning, performance, and innovations.” 〔
==Error Prevention vs. Error Management==
Errors are traditionally regarded as negative events that should be avoided. However, a pure error prevention approach cannot deal adequately with the fact that errors are ubiquitous.〔 The EM approach assumes that human errors per se can never be completely prevented, and, therefore, it is necessary to ask the question of what can be done after an error has occurred.
EM distinguishes between errors and their consequences. Whereas error prevention aims at avoiding negative error consequences by avoiding the error altogether, error management focuses on reducing negative error consequences and on increasing potentially positive consequences through design or training.〔 Examples of using an error management approach can be found in software systems (e.g., the Undo function), physical setups (e.g., the containment structure around nuclear power plants), crew and individual behaviors (e.g., cross-checking in the cockpit that leads to “error trapping” i.e., catching the error before its negative consequences can unfold; see.,〔Helmreich, R.L., A.C. Merritt, and J.A. Wilhelm, The evolution of crew resource management training in commercial aviation. International Journal of Aviation Psychology, 1999. 9: p. 19-32.〕 and organizational practices.〔van Dyck, C., et al., Organizational error management culture and its impact on performance: A two-study replication. Journal of Applied Psychology, 2005. 90: p. 1228-1240.〕
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